Exam 1 was a take-home exam. Listed below are a set of guidelines I used for evaluating your anwsers.
1)Written discussion: Discuss (describe, explain and discuss) risk factors facing Jennifer and Derek’s unborn child…that is, discuss the potential risks to the developing fetus.
Hint1: Discuss the effects of nicotine on fetal development, the potential effects of alcohol on fetal development, and any paternal factors you think may be relevant. Also, discuss conditions that affect the severity of the damage and/or type of birth defect that may be caused.
Hint2: Discuss whether or not Jennifer’s anxiety will influence the birth process and the newborn. If so, then in what way(s) might anxiety influence outcome?
Hint3: Discuss whether or not (and why) you would expect Jennifer and Derek’s baby to be low birth weight, preterm, and/or small-for-date. Which classification and why? Define the classification(s) you chose. Discuss the possible consequences of such a classification for Jennifer’s baby.
ANSWER:
-A teratogen is any agent that can cause a birth defect. Teratogens include but are not limited to nicotine, alcohol, heroin, caffeine, toxins (such as lead and various pollutants), cocaine, marijuana, some prescription and non-prescription drugs, infectious diseases, radiation, etc. (Page: 79-85). Developing babies are exposed to maternal teratogens during gestation across the placenta.
-The textbook discusses three conditions that affect the severity of the damage and/or type of birth defect teratogens may cause (Page: 79-85).
-They are –
i) Dose: The greater the does of a teratogenic agent, the greater its effect;
ii) Genetic susceptibility: Genotypes of the woman and of the fetus influence the effect of a given teratogen; and,
iii) Time of exposure: Teratogens do more damage at some points in development than others. Specifically, during early pregnancy (the period of the embryo)the organism is at its most vulnerable.
-Because Jennifer is a smoker, there may be effects of nicotine on fetal development. Nicotine use by the mother when pregnant can lead to the following problems in the fetus or infant: 1. respiratory problems, 2. poor language and cognitive development, 3. low birthweight, 4. preterm births, and 5. a higher incidence of fetal and neonatal deaths, 6. higher incidence of SIDS (Page: 81-82).
-Jennifer’s baby may be at risk for fetal alcohol syndrome(FAS), as well. Fetal alcohol syndrome is a cluster of abnormalities that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. Depending on the dosage, timing, and genetic susceptibility, the abnormalities may include: 1. facial deformities, 2. defective limbs, 3. defective heart, 4. below-average intelligence, 5. mental retardation (Page: 81).
-Certain paternal factors are known to potentially influence fetal development, as well – through damage to sperm cells. The known paternal factors are 1. cocaine, 2. marijuana, and 3. nicotine, 4.exposure to pollutants and toxins, 5. age. Derek uses tobacco and marijuana; therefore, fetal development may be affected.
-Maternal smoking is correlated with low birth weight in infants, as discussed above. Thus, Jennifer’s baby may be a birth weight infant. Low birth weight infants are defined as full-term babies weighing less than 5-1/2 pounds at birth. Maternal smoking is correlated also with preterm birth. Preterm infants are those born three weeks or more before pregnancy has reached full term (35 or fewer weeks after conception) (Page: 92).
-The textbook discusses several possible consequences of low birth weight. They are: brain damage, lung or liver disease, learning problems or disabilities, attention deficit disorder, breathing problems; that is, low birth weight is correlated with increased incidence of number of problems. Jennifer's baby is at risk...(Page: 92-93).
2) Written discussion: Describe prenatal diagnostic tests (be sure to include when and why they are administered). Would Jennifer be a likely candidate for any of the three tests? Why/why not?
ANSWER:
-Amniocentesis: a sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe to determine if any chromosomal or metabolic disorders are present in the developing fetus, given between the 12th and 16th weeks of pregnancy
-Ultrasound sonography: high-frequency sound waves are directed into the pregnant woman’s abdomen to assess growth and development, can be given anytime during pregnancy
-Chorionic villi sampling: a small sample of the placenta is removed, given between the 8th and 11th week of pregnancy
-Maternal blood test (alpha-fetoprotein test—AFP): blood is drawn and tested to determine if defects are present in brain and spinal cord of the fetus, given between the 14th and 20th week of pregnancy (Page: 78-79).
-There are benefits and drawbacks of the having the ability to identify DNA variations and potential genetic flaws.
-Benefits: Doctors could predict risk for disease or mental disorder. Doctors could recommend treatment (healthy lifestyle regimens, medication, etc.).
-Drawbacks: Faulty genetic profiles may have negative effects for individuals (inability to obtain life or health insurance, difficulty finding employment, etc.) (Page: 70).
3) Written discussion: Describe the procedure that will be used to evaluate the baby. List the health signs that will be considered in the evaluation - and when the evaluation will be administered. How will the baby be treated based on the evaluation?
ANSWER:
-Five health signs are evaluated by the Apgar scale. Newborns are evaluated immediately after birth and five or ten minutes later. It takes some newborns more time to stabilize, which is the reason for the second administration of the scale. The five health signs evaluated by the Apgar include: 1. Heart rate, 2. respiratory effort, 3. muscle tone, 4. body color, 5. reflex irritability. Scores can be used to identify babies who need immediate medical attention; a healthy baby obtains a scale of seven or higher (Page: 94-95).
4) Written discussion: Jennifer wants to have a “good relationship” with her baby. Discuss points that might influence the issue of bonding between mother and newborn.
ANSWER:
-As your textbook discusses, bonding is the formation of a connection between parent and newborn. Sometimes hospital conditions can interfere with bonding (pain drugs make the mother drowsy, separation of mother and newborn after delivery, preterm infants may be isolated from the mother, etc.).
-Some physicians believe that parent and child need to form an emotional attachment shortly after birth in order for optimal development in years to come. The extreme bonding hypothesis that a newborn must have close contact with the mother in the first few days of life to develop optimally is simply not true. Many hospitals offer rooming-in arrangements in which a baby can remain in the mother’s room most of the time during its hospital stay (Page: 96).
5) Written discussion: Explain the biological mechanism that gave rise to this “twinning.” Would you expect the two boys to be highly similar or dissimilar as they grow?
ANSWER:
-Identical (monozygotic) twins develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two genetically identical replicas. Identical twins are genetically indistinguishable; that is, their genotypes are the same (Page: 71).
-That is, the genetic material of identical twins is the same. (background: Each human cell contains 46 chromosomes that come in 23 pairs. Chromosomes contain DNA, a complex molecule containing genetic information. Genes are short segments of DNA--it's the same for MZ twins...
A) eye-color - John has blue eyes – can you determine if Sean also has blue eyes? Hint: blue-eyes is a recessive trait – describe how blue eye-color would be inherited (discuss the mechanism) and why same or not same in identical twins…
ANSWER:
-If we assume that the inheritance of eye color operates on the dominant-recessive principle - and then note the one twin has blue eyes - then, we may assert that each boy has blue eyes.
-According to the dominant-recessive principle of inheritance, if one gene in a pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene exerts its effect and overrides the potential influence of the recessive gene. Conversely, for the recessive gene to be expressed in the phenotype, two copies of the recessive gene must be inherited. Examples: brown eyes over blue eyes, farsightedness over nearsightedness, dimples over no dimples, no freckles over freckles. Therefore, for blue eyes to be expressed, two recessive genes for blue eyes would have to be inherited.
-The eye color of the twins should be the same because monozygotic twins have identical genotypes (genotype is a person’s entire genetic heritage).
The trait of Blue eyes is the part of the individuals phenotype (the way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics).
B) Intelligence Why/why not? Hint: What do twin studies reviewed in your text have to say about this question…
ANSWER:
-A complex trait, such as intelligence, is the result of the polygenic principle of inheritance– that is, many genes working in concert with the environment.
-The textbook notes that the environments of identical twins may be more similar than those of fraternal twins and ordinary siblings. For instance, the text discusses the concept that children who have genetic propensities toward certain abilities will spend more time in those types of environments. Therefore, in addition to the same genetic material, twins raised together are thought to share highly similar environments, as well. Shared environmental experiences would include common experiences, such as parents’ intellectual orientations, values, socioeconomic status, and neighborhood. On this basis, one would predict a high degree of similarity for the trait of intelligence (Pages: 71-73).
Chapter 1 Questions:
7) Identify which developmental issue is addressed in each of the following questions. Then, be sure you discuss/define each of the three developmental issues in detail.
7Q1. Can enriched experiences in adolescence remove the negative effects of poverty and/or neglect in childhood?
7Q1 Answer: This is an example of the stability and change issue; this issue concerns whether we become older renditions of our early experience or whether we develop into something different than we were at an earlier point in development. The basic theme is whether development is best described by stability or by change.
7Q2. Are girls less likely to do well in math because of a masculine bias in society?
7Q2 Answer: This is an example of the continuity and discontinuity issue; the focus of this issue is on whether development involves gradual, cumulative change from conception to death (continuity), or whether development occurs in distinct stages or phases across the life span (discontinuity).
7Q3. Does development occur primarily in distinct stages or in a more gradual and cumulative manner?
7Q3 Answer: This is an example of nature and nurture issue; the nature-nurture issue involves the debate about whether development is influenced primarily by maturation (the genetic blueprint or biological inheritance) or by environmental experiences.
8) Briefly discuss the early-experience vs.later-experience issue.
Answer: Early-experience theorists argue that infant and early childhood experiences are most important in shaping human development, whereas later-experience theorists believe that people are malleable throughout development and later experiences are equally important in shaping development(Page:19-20).
